Interaction of mantle convection with the lithosphere and the origin of kimberlites
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24028/gzh.0203-3100.v35i5.2013.116445Abstract
Thermobarometry of xenolites/xenocrysts from 39 kimberlites of Eurasia, Africa, and North America demonstrates that the deepest xenolites, as well as all the other, are exhumed from the depleted lithosphere implying in agreement with petrologic and geochemical data that the kimberlite sources are situated within the limits of the depleted lithosphere. It follows from the thermobarometric data that the deepest xenolite depth decreases with increasing reference heat flow (RHF) characterizing a lithospheric geotherm. Conditions controlling formation of a rheological sublayer at the lithosphere-astenosphere boundary have been studied. In agreement with observations, a geodynamic model implies that the mantle convection reaches the base of depleted lithosphere of a "cratonic" thickness (> 130-150 km) during the post-Archean. The rheological sublayer partially penetrates the lithosphere. As a result, a layer of strongly sheared rocks form, wherefrom deepest and severely deformed xenoliths with fluidal microstructure similar to that of crustal mylonites seem to be entrained by kimberlites. The relation between the depleted lithosphere thickness and the reference heat flow predicted by the model agrees well with the thermobarometry data. In whole, the present results support the model of the kimberlite genesis assuming that the kimberlite magmatism originates from an interaction of the plume "head" with lithosphere. While this "head" propagates laterally, it follows the re-lief of the lithosphere base, metasomatizes lithosphere, and initiates melting with the melt composition depending on pressure at the lithosphere base. Particularly, under the conditions of the cratonic lithosphere base the melts have kimberlitic composition.References
Агашев А. М., Орихаши Ю., Ватанабе Т., Похиленко Н. П., Серенко В. П. Изотопно-геохимическая характеристика кимберлитов сибирской платформы в связи с проблемой их происхождения // Геология и геофизика. - 2000. - 41. - С. 90-99.
Белов С. В., Лапин А. В., Толстов А. В., Фролов А. А. Минерагения платформенного магматизма (траппы, карбонатиты, кимберлиты). - Новосибирск: Изд. СО РАН, 2008. - 537 с.
Костровицкий С. И., Морикио Т., Серов И. В., Яковлев Д.А., Амирджанов А.А. Изотопно-геохимическая систематика кимберлитов Сибирской платформы // Геология и геофизика. - 2007. - 48, № 3. - С. 350-371.
Ландау Л.Д., Лифшиц Е.М. Гидродинамика. - Москва: Наука, 1986. - 736 с.
Рябчиков И.Д. Механизмы и условия магмообразования в мантийных плюмах // Петрология. - 2003. - 11, № 6. - С. 548-555.
Рябчиков И.Д., Гирнис А. В. Происхождение низкокальциевых кимберлитовых магм // Геология и геофизика. - 2005. - 46, № 12. - С. 1223-1233.
Сафонов О. Г., Перчук Л. Л. Карбонатит-кимберлитовые тренды в хлорид-карбонат-силикатных системах в условиях верхней мантии / / Физико-химические факторы петро- и рудогенеза: новые рубежи: Материалы конф., посвященной 110-летию со дня рождения академика Д. С. Коржинского. - Москва, ИГЕМ РАН 7-9 октября 2009 г. - С. 351-355.
Соболев А.В., Каменецкий В.С., Кононкова Н.Н. Новые данные по петрологии сибирских меймечитов//Геохимия. - 1991. - № 8. - С. 1084- 1095.
Хазан Я.М., Арясова О.В. Сегрегация расплава внутри частично расплавленной зоны: теория, численные модели и следствия // Физика Земли. - 2011. - № 5. - С. 58-72.
Хазан Я. М., Арясова О. В. Геодинамика кимберлитового магматизма: Тез. докл. Третьей Всерос. тектонофиз. конф. в ИФЗ РАН. Тектонофизика и актуальные вопросы наук о Земле.- Москва: ИФЗ РАН, 2012. - Т. 1. - С. 110- 113.
Ashchepkov I. V., Pokhilenko N. P., Vladykin N. V., Logvinova A. M., Afanasiev V. P., Pokhilenko L. N., Kuligin S. S., Malygina E. V., Alymova N.A., Kostrovitsky S. I., Rotman A. Y., Mityukhin S. I., Karpenko M.A., Stegnitsky Y.B., Khemelnikova O.S. Structure and evolution of the lithospheric mantle beneath Siberian craton, thermobarometric study // Tectonophysics. - 2010. - 485. - P. 17-41.
Aulbach S., Pearson N.J., O'Reilly S.Y., Doyle B.J. Origins of xenolithic eclogites and pyroxenites from the central Slave Craton, Canada // J. Petrol. - 2007. - 48. - P. 1843-1873.
Basu A.R., Poreda R.J., Renne P.R., Teichmann F., Vasil'ev Yu.R., Sobolev N.V., Turrin B.D. High-3He plume origin and temporal-spatial evolution of the Siberian flood basalts // Science. - 1995.- 269. - P. 822-825.
Becker M., le Roex A.P. Geochemistry of South African on- and off-craton, Group I and Group II kimberlites: Petrogenesis and source region evolution // J. Petrol. - 2006. - 47. - Р. 673- 703.
Bell K., Tilton G.R. Nd, Pb and Sr isotopic compositions of East African carbonatites: evidence for mantle mixing and plume inhomogeneity // J. Petrol. - 2001. - 42. - P. 1927-1945.
Bell K., Tilton G.R. Probing the mantle: the story from carbonatites // EOS Trans. Am. Geophys. Union. - 2002. - 83 (25). - P. 273-277.
Boullier A. M., Nicolas A. Classification of textures and fabrics of peridotite xenoliths from South African kimberlites // Phys. Chem. Earth. - 1975. - 9. - P. 467-475.
Boyd F.R., Pokhilenko N.P., Pearson D.G., Mertzman S.A., Sobolev N.V., Finger L.W. Composition of the Siberian cratonic mantle: evidence from Udachnaya peridotite xenoliths // Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. - 1997. - 128. - P. 228- 246.
Boyd F. R., Pearson D. G., Hoal K. O., Hoal B. G., Nixon P.H., Kingston M.J., Mertzman S.A. Garnet lherzolites from Louwrensia, Namibia: bulk composition and P/T relations // Lithos. - 2004.- 77. - P. 573-592.
Burgess S., Harte B. Tracing lithosphere evolution through the analysis of heterogeneous G9-G10 garnets in peridotite xenoliths, II: REE chemistry // J. Petrol. - 2004. - 45. - P. 609- 644.
Campbell I.H., Griffiths R.W., Hill R.I. Melting in an Archaean mantle plume: Heads it's basalts, tails it's komatiites // Nature. - 1989. - 339.- P. 697-699.
Campbell I. H., Griffiths R. W. Implications of mantle plume structure for the evolution of flood basalts // Earth Planet. Sci. Let. - 1990. - 99. - P. 79-93.
Canil D., Fedortchouk Y. Garnet dissolution and the emplacement of kimberlites // Earth Planet. Sci. Let. - 1999. - 167. - P. 227-237.
Chalapathi Rao N. V., Lehman B. Kimberlites, flood basalts and mantle plumes: New insights from the Deccan Large Igneous Province // Earth Sci. Rev. - 2011. - 107. - P. 315-324.
Crough S.T., Morgan W.J., Hargraves R.B. Kimberlites: their relation to mantle hotspots // Earth Planet. Sci. Let. - 1980. - 50. - P. 260-274.
Dobretsov N. L., Kirdyashkin A.A., Kirdyashkin A. G., Vernikovsky V.A., Gladkov I.N. Modeling of thermochemical plumes and implications for the origin of the Siberian traps // Lithos. - 2008. - 100. - P. 66-92.
England P., Howsemann G. On the geodynamic setting of kimberlite genesis // Earth Planet. Sci. Let. - 1984. - 67. - P. 109-122.
Ernst R. E. Large igneous provinces in Canada through time and their metallogenic potential // Mineral deposits of Canada: a synthesis of major deposit-types, district metallogeny, the evolution of geological provinces, and exploration methods / Ed. W. D. Goodfellow // Geol. Assot. Canada Spec. Publ. - 2007. - № 5. - P. 929-937.
Ernst R.E., Bell K. Large igneous provinces (LIPs) and carbonatites // Mineral. Petrol. 2010. - 98. - P. 55-76.
Ernst R. V. E., Buchan K. L., West T. D., Palmer H. C. Diabase (dolerite) dyke swarms of the world.- Geological survey of Canada open file 3241.- 1996. - 104 p.
Gibson S.A., Thompson R.N., Leonardos O.H., Dickin A.P., Mitchell J.G. The Late Cretaceous impact of the Trindade Mantle Plume: Evidence from large-volume, mafic, potassic magma-tism in SE Brazil // J. Petrol. - 1995. - 36. - P. 189-229.
Gibson S.A., Thompson R.N., Day J.A. Timescales and mechanisms of plume-lithosphere interactions: 40 Ar / 39 Ar geochronology and geochemistry of alkaline igneous rocks from the Parana- Etendeka Large Igneous Province // Earth Planet. Sci. Let. - 2006. - 251. P. 1-17.
Gibson S.A., Malarkey J., Day J.A. Melt depletion and enrichment beneath the western Kaap-vaal craton: Evidence from Finsch peridotite xenoliths // J. Petrol. - 2008. - 49. - P. 1817- 1852.
Grégoire M., Bell D., le Roex A. Garnet lherzolites from the Kaapvaal craton (South Africa): Trace element evidence for metasomatic history // J. Petrol. - 2003. - 44. - P. 629-657.
Griffiths R.W., Campbell I.H. Interaction of mantle plume heads with the Earth's surface and onset of small-scale convection // J. Geophys. Res. - 1991. - 96. - P. 18295-18310.
Grütter H.S. Pyroxene xenocryst geotherms: Techniques and application // Lithos. - 2009. - 112S. - P. 1167-1178.
Grütter H.S., Latti D., Menzies A. Crsaturation arrays in concentrate garnet compositions from kimberlite and their use in mantle barometry // J. Petrol. - 2006. - 47. - P. 801-820.
Gudfinnsson G.H., Presnall D.C. Continuous gradations among primary carbonatitic, kimberli-tic, melilititic, picritic, and komatiitic melts in equilibrium with garnet lherzolite at 3-8 GPa // J. Petrol. - 2005. - 46. - P. 1645-1659.
Hasterok D. Thermal state of the oceanic and continental lithosphere: Ph. D. thesis. - University of Utah, 2010. - 156 p.
Hasterok D., Chapman D.S. Heat production and geotherms for the continental lithosphere // Earth Planet. Sci. Let. - 2011. - 307. - P. 59- 70.
Heaman L.M., Kjarsgaard B.A. Timing of eastern North American kimberlite magmatism: Continental extension of the Great Meteor Hotspot Track? // Earth Planet. Sci. Let. - 2000. - 178. - P. 253-268.
Heaman L., Kjarsgaard B., Creaser R. The timing of kimberlite magmatism in North America: Implications for global kimberlite genesis and diamond exploration // Lithos. - 2003. - 71.- P. 153-184.
Heaman L., Kjarsgaard B., Creaser R. The temporal evolution of North American kimberlites // Lithos. - 2004. - 76. - P. 377-397.
Hearn Jr. B. C. The Homestead kimberlite: Central Montana, U.S.A.: Mineralogy, xenocrysts, and upper-mantle xenoliths // Lithos. - 2004.- 77. - P. 473-491.
Hearn Jr. B. C., McGee E.S. Garnet peridotites from Williams kimberlites, north-central Montana, U.S.A. // Kimberlites: Proceedings of the Third International Kimberlite conference (1982, Clermont-Ferrand, France) / Ed. J. Kornprobst.- Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1984. - Vol. 2. - P. 57- 70.
Herzberg C., Condie K., Korenaga J. Thermal history of the Earth and its petrological expression // Earth Planet. Sci. Let. - 2010. - 292.- P. 79-88.
Herzberg C., Asimow P.D., Arndt N., Niu Y., Lesher C.M., Fitton J.G., Cheadle M.J., Saunders A.D. Temperatures in ambient mantle and plumes: Constraints from basalts, picrites, and komatiites // Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. - 2007.- 8. - Q02006. - DOI: 10.1029/2006GC00 1390.
Hirth G., Kohlstedt D. Rheology of the upper mantle and the mantle wedge: A view from the experimentalists // Inside the Subduction Factory / Ed. J. Eiler. - Geophys. Monogr. Ser. V. 138.- Washington: D. C., 2003. - P. 83-105.
Jago B. C., Mitchell R.H. Ultrabasic xenoliths from the Ham kimberlite, Somerset Island, Northwest Territories // Canadian Mineralogist. - 1987. - 25. - P. 515-525.
Janney P.E., Shirey S.B., Carlson R.W., Pearson D.G., Bell D.R., le Roex A.P., Ishikawa A., Nixon P.H., Boyd F.R. Age, composition and thermal characteristics of South African off-craton mantle lithosphere: Evidence for a multi-stage history // J. Petrol. - 2010. - 51. - P. 1849-1890.
Jarvis G. T., Peltier W. R. Mantle convection as a boundary layer phenomenon // Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc. - 1982. - 68. - P. 385-424.
Karato S. On the Lehmann discontinuity // Geophys. Res. Let. - 1992. - 19. - P. 2255- 2258.
Karato S.-i. Deformation of Earth materials. An introduction in the rheology of solid Earth. - Cambridge: Cambridge Univers. Press, 2008.- 463 p.
Kelley S.P., Wartho J-A. Rapid kimberlite ascent and the significance of Ar-Ar ages in xenolith phlogopites // Science. - 2000. - 289. - P. 609- 611.
Kennedy C.S., Kennedy G.C. The equilibrium boundary between graphite and diamond // J. Geophys. Res. - 1976. - 81. - P. 2470-2476.
Kennedy L.A., Russell J.K., Kopylova M.G. Mantle shear zones revisited: The connection between the cratons and mantle dynamics // Geology. - 2002. - 30. - P. 419-422.
Khazan Y. Melt segregation and matrix compaction: the mush continuity equation, compac-tion/segregation time, implications // Geophys. J. Int. - 2010. - 183. - P. 601-610.
Khazan Y.M., Fialko Y.A. Fracture criteria at the tip of fluid-driven cracks in the Earth // Geo-phys. Res. Let. - 1995. - 22 (18). - P. 2541- 2544.
Kogarko L.N., Lahaye Y., Brey G.P. Plume-related mantle source of super-large rare metal deposits from the Lovozero and Khibina massifs on the Kola Peninsula, Eastern part of Baltic Shield: Sr, Nd and Hf isotope systematics // Mineral. Petrol. - 2010. - 98. - P. 197-208.
Kopylova M.G., Russell J.K., Cookenboo H. Petrology of peridotite and pyroxenite xenoliths from the Jericho kimberlite: Implications for the thermal state of the mantle beneath the Slave craton, northern Canada // J. Petrol. - 1999. - 40.- P. 79-104.
Korenaga J. Scaling of stagnant-lid convection with Arrhenius rheology and the effects of mantle melting // Geophys. J. Int. - 2009. - 179.- P. 154-170.
Lazarov M., Woodland A.B., Brey G.P. Thermal state and redox conditions of the Kaapvaal mantle: A study of xenoliths from the Finsch mine, South Africa // Lithos. - 2009. - 112S. - P. 913- 923.
Lehtonen M.L., O'Brien H.E., Peltonen P., Johansson B.S., Pakkanen L.K. Layered lithospheric mantle at the edge of the Karelian Craton: P-T
and compositions of kimberlitic xenocrysts and xenoliths from Kaavi-Kuopio, Finland // Lithos.- 2004. - 77. - P. 593-608.
Lister J. R., Kerr R. C. Fluid-mechanical models of crack propagation and their application to magma transport in dykes / J. Geophys. Res. - 1991. - 96. - P. 10049-10077.
Luguet A., Jaques A.L., Pearson D.G., Smith C.B., Bulanova G. P., Roffey S.L., Rayner M.J., Lorand J.-P. An integrated petrological, geochemical and Re-Os isotope study of peridotite xenoliths from the Argyle lamproite, Western Australia and implications for cratonic diamond occurrences // Lithos. - 2009. - 112S. - P. 1096- 1108.
Mather K.A., Pearson D.G., McKenzie D., Kjarsgaard B.A., Priestley K. Constraints on the depth and thermal history of cratonic lithosphere from peridotite xenoliths, xenocrysts and seismology // Lithos. - 2011. - 125. - P. 729-742.
Menzies A. H., Westerlund K., Grutter H., Gurney J.J., Carlson J., Fung A., Nowicki T. Peridotitic mantle xenoliths from kimberlites on the Ekati diamond mine property, N. W. T., Canada: Major element compositions and implications for the lithosphere beneath the central Slave craton // Lithos. - 2004. - 77. - P. 395-412.
Mitchell R. Kimberlites, orangeites, and related rocks. - New York: Plenum Press. 1995. - 410 p.
Morgan W.J. Hotspot tracks and the early rifting of the Atlantic // Tectonophysics. - 1983. - 94.- P. 123-139.
Nimis P., Taylor W.R. Single clinopyroxene ther-mobarometry for garnet peridotites. Part 1. Calibration and testing of a Cr-in-Cpx barometer and an enstatite-in-Cpx thermometer // Cont-rib. Mineral. Petrol. - 2000. - 139. - P. 541- 554.
Nimis P., Zanetti A., Dencker I., Sobolev N. V. Major and trace element composition of chromi-an diopsides from the Zagadochnaya kimberlite (Yakutia, Russia): Metasomatic processes, ther-mobarometry and diamond potential // Lithos.- 2009. - 112. - P. 397-412.
Pearson N.J., Griffin W.L., Doyle B.J., O'Reilly S.Y., Van Achterbergh E., Kivi K. Xenoliths from kimberlite pipes of the Lac de Gras area, Slave craton, Canada // Proceedings of the 7th International Kimberlite Conference, P. H. Nixon. - Capetown: Red Roof Design, 1999. - Vol. 2. - P. 644-658.
Pollack H. N., Chapman D. S. On the regional variation of heat flow, geotherm and lithosphere thickness // Tectonophysics. - 1977. - 38.- P. 279-296.
Richards M.A., Duncan R.A., Courtillot V.E. Flood basalts and hot-spot tracks: Plume heads and tails // Science. - 1989. - 256. - P. 203- 207.
Sage R.P. Kimberlites of the Attawapiskat area, James Bay Lowlands, northern Ontario // Ontario Geological Survey Open File Report 6019.- 2000. - 341 p.
Sand K.K., Waight T.E., Pearson D.G, Nielsen T.F.D., Makovicky E., Hutchison M. T. The lithospheric mantle below southern West Greenland: A geothermobarometric approach to diamond potential and mantle stratigraphy // Lithos. - 2009.- 112S. - P. 1155-1166.
Schmidberger S., Francis D. Nature of mantle roots beneath the North American Craton: Mantle xenolith evidence from Somerset Island kimberlites // Lithos. - 1999. - 48. - P. 195- 216.
Schutt D.L., Lesher C.E. Effects of melt depletion on the density and seismic velocity of garnet and spinel lherzolite // J. Geophys. Res. - 2006.- 111. - B05401. - D0I:10.10292003JB00 2950.
Simon N.S.C., Irvine G.J., Davies G.R., Pearson D.G., Carlson R. W. The origin of garnet and clinopyroxene in "depleted" Kaapvaal peridotites // Lithos. - 2003. - 71. - P. 289-322.
Simon N.S.C., Carlson R.W., Pearson G.D., Davies G.R. The origin and evolution of the Kaapvaal cratonic lithospheric mantle // J. Petrol.- 2007. - 48. - P. 589-625.
Skemer P., Karato S.-I. Sheared lherzolite xenoliths revisited // J. Geophys. Res. - 2008. - 113. - B07205. - D0I:10.1029/2007JB005286.
Smith C.B., Gurney J.J., Skinner E.M.W., Clement C.R., Ebrahim N. Geochemical character of the southern African kimberlites: a new approach based on isotopic constraints // Transactions Geol. Soc. South Africa. - 1985. - 88.- P. 267-280.
Smith C.B., Pearson D.G., Bulanova G.P., Beard A.D., Carlson R. W., Wittig N., Sims K., Chimuka L., Muchemwa E. Extremely depleted lithospheric mantle and diamonds beneath the southern Zimbabwe Craton // Lithos. - 2009. - 112S. - P. 1120-1132.
Solomatov V. S. Scaling of temperature- and stress-dependent viscosity convection // Phys. Fluids. - 1995. - 7. - P. 266-274.
Solomatov V.S., Moresi L.-N. Scaling of time-dependent stagnant lid convection. Application to small-scale convection on Earth and other terrestrial planets // J. Geophys. Res. - 2000. - 105. - P. 21795-21817.
Spence D., Turcotte D. Buoyancy-driven magma fracture - a mechanism for ascent through the lithosphere and the emplacement of diamonds // J. Geophys. Res. - 1990. - 95. - P. 5133-5139.
Stengel S. C., Oliver D. C, Booker J. R. Onset of convection in a variable-viscosity fluid // J. Fluid. Mech. - 1982. - 120. - P. 411-431.
Torsvik T.H., Burke K., Steinberger B., Webb S.J., Ashwal L. D. Diamonds sampled by plumes from the core-mantle boundary // Nature. - 2010.- 466. - P. 352-357.
Torsvik T.H., Smethurst M.A., Burke K., Steinberger B. Large igneous provinces generated from the margins of the large low-velocity provinces in the deep mantle // Geophys. J. Int. - 2006.- 167. - P. 1447-1460.
Torsvik T.H., Smethurst M.A., Burke K., Steinberger B. Long term stability in deep mantle structure: evidence from the 300 Ma Skagerrak-cen-tered large igneous province (the SCLIP) // Earth Planet. Sci. Let. - 2008. - 267. - P. 444-452.
Turcotte D.T., Oxburgh E.R. Finite amplitude convection cells and continental drift // J. FIuid Mech. - 1967. - 28. - P. 29-42.
Turner S., Hawkesworth C., Gallagher K., Stewart K. Peate D., Mantovani M. Mantle plumes, flood basalts, and thermal models for melt generation beneath continents: Assessment of a conductive heating model and application to the Parana // J. Geophys. Res. - 1996. - 101. - P. 11503-11518.
van Achterbergh E., Griffin W.L., Ryan C.G., O'Reilly S.Y., Pearson N.J., Kivi K., Doyle B.J. Melt inclusions from the deep Slave lithosphere: implications for the origin and evolution of mantle-derived carbonatite and kimberlite // Lithos.- 76. - 2004. - P. 461-474.
Viljoen F., Dobbe R., Smith B. Geochemical processes in peridotite xenoliths from the Premier diamond mine, South Africa: Evidence for the depletion and refertilisation of subcratonic lithosphere // Lithos. - 2009. - 112S. - P. 1133- 1142.
White R., McKenzie D. Magmatism at rift zones: The generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts // J. Geophys. Res. - 1989.- 94. - P. 7685-7729.
White R., McKenzie D. Mantle plumes and flood basalts // J. Geophys. Res. - 1995. - 100. - P. 17543-17585.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2020 Geofizicheskiy Zhurnal
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
1. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
2. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
