POWER DYNAMICS IN PARENT- CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: A CHILD LABOUR DILEMMA

Article history: Received: April 19, 2021 1st Revision: April 24, 2021 Accepted: September 30, 2021 Abstract. Although a number of studies have been explored on the effects of child labour on children, its consequential impacts on parent-child relationship has however not be of primary concern. Seeing the possible influence of parental relationship on the child’s social development, this paper accentuates the way in which the role reversal of parents in terms of children’s financial contributions impedes positive relationships in households. The study is a qualitative approach using the narrative design to gain an understanding of the power dynamics in parent-child relationships; and demonstrates how children’s earning role creates an environment of conflict detrimental to their wellbeing.The findings reveal that various strategies are used by children to challenge parental authority when they are responsible for a fair amount of income generation, which include disobedience, insubordination and aggressive behaviour. This thus, requires greater attention for social work intervention measures.


RECENT ISSUES IN SOCIAL WORK
Social Work and Education, Vol. 8, No 3, 2021 are reflected in the emerging actualities of the parent-child relationship. Underpinning the relationship of parents and children is the notion of power and influence. Historically, children have been positioned as subordinate in the societies (James et al., 1998;Omorogiuwa, 2017), a view endorsed by most parent-child contexts. In this sense, practices and power within the family context are constructed and directed by parents for children. However, in situations of child labour in which the "structures are set by children"; there is limited opportunity for parents to assert their authority (Save the Children, 2009, p. 38). If parents cannot relate to their children without restrictions because of this role reversal, then their power to have an impact as parents may be changed. The role reversal between child and parent could inhibit the authority of parents and limits their influence over children, which may impede the development of a bond between the parent and child. Socialisation research conducted by Kuczynski (2003, p. 12) suggests that children are submissive to parental authority because "compliance casts the child's role in terms of conformity to parent's desires." However, this is likely to change in the context of child labour because of the earning capacity of children. Parent-child relationships in child labour situations are affected by various factors, which are used by children to prevent parents from having direct control over them. A key dynamic mentioned by Kuczynski and De Mol (2015) involves the direct restriction of parental actions in decision-making. Decision constraints are utilised by children as strategies to avoid adjusting to parental views, while pursuing their own aims (Parkin & Kuczynski, 2012). The restriction of parental power is one of the most prevailing change strategies employed by children, which could obstruct the parent-child relationship. Patterson (as cited in Cavell & Strand, 2003) acknowledges that children exercise considerable power due to role reversal. Ensuring the survival of the family could serve to shape children's actions as it inculcates a feeling of power. If parents are constantly challenged and their authority over children is limited, opportunities for curtailing children's negative behaviour and guiding them may be considerably reduced.

Aim of the study
The major objective of this study is to examine the power dynamics that exist in parentchild relationship due to children's engagement in economic activities from the perspectives of child labourers and their parents in Benin City, Nigeria.

The research questions
The research questions in this study are:  Does children's involvement in work influence their parents' decision making?  Does children's involvement in work encourage insubordination to parents?  Does children's involvement in work promote aggressive attitudes to parents?

Methodology
The study is qualitative using the narrative approach to gain in-depth understanding of the power imbalance in parent-child relationship due to the engagement of children in child labour. Purposive sampling was used for the identification of 20 working children between ages 7 and 14 years males and females as well as their parents for participation in semi-structured interview. The sample was a volunteer samplewhich took into account ethical issues such as voluntary participation and informed consent.Given that the sample needs to have experience and knowledge of the issue, qualitative researchers seek for individuals and settings where the specific problems being studied are likely to take place (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Interview had questions pertaining to the attitudes of children and the nature of parent-child relationship since children started working.Data was analyzed using the thematic analysis procedures provided by

RECENT ISSUES IN SOCIAL WORK
Social Work and Education, Vol. 8, No 3, 2021 Braun and Clarke (2006). The application of the thematic data analysis linked with the ecological perspective facilitated an in-depth understanding of the experiences of children involved in child labour and their parents. Data triangulation was utilized to ensure the trustworthiness of the study by matching the findings from children and parents with literature in order to improve research credibility.

Data Presentation
This study examined the influence of child labouron the power dynamics that exist in parent-child relationships. The findings derived from the data analysis reveal the restriction of parents' authority presented under the following headings: dynamics of decision-making, dynamics of insubordination and power as a context for aggression, which has impacted on their capacity to relate to the children and created a reverse in hierarchical system of interaction.

Dynamics of Decision-Making
Restraining parental decision-making is synonymous with limiting their influence in the household. An essential concern in the process of upholding reciprocal relationships between parents and children focuses on parental guidance in children's choices. Parental decisionmaking ability exists in parent-child relationship as long as parents continue to assume responsibility for financial support (Zarit & Eggebeen, 1995). However, parents experience 'power reversal' of decision dynamics when children adopt the financial role. Decision constraints are utilised by children as strategies to avoid adjusting to parental views, while pursuing aims (Parkin & Kuczynski, 2012). This implies that the notion of power shift could be present in interpersonal interactions. When children work instead of parents, maintaining the parental role in the home could be challenging and may lead to changes in behaviour on the part of the children, as illustrated in the excerpts below: Peter's Mother: "At times I feel inferior for allowing my son to be supporting us…. Sometimes Peter decides how money is spent in the house, and how he spends the money he keeps for his school needs alone….He has even threatened to stop working if I question him again….so I am calm". Peter: "My mother wants to know how I use my school money, I won't, I want to have a say in the money I earn, or else I will stop the work".
These narratives illustrate how children who work assume they can be 'autonomous' in the family, thus changing parental authority through the altered financial situation.This can also be observed in Famous'and his mother's statements: Famous If children continue to make substantial contributions to the income of the family, it changes their role as children, since they now determine how the money is spent. Given the authority which parents have had over children historically, it is understandable they would want to manage any revenue earned by the children. But if children believe they can manage their income better than their parents, they are likely to resist parental guidance. Save the Children (2009) confirms that challenges against parental decisions become possible, when children feel they are able to control what they earn, which often leads to differences of opinion in the home. Moses (2008, p. 332) finds that children "implicate the power dynamics between them and their parents as undermining their ability to be involved in decision-making since they believe who has the power makes decisions". The power dynamics in child-parent relationships result in

RECENT ISSUES IN SOCIAL WORK
Social Work and Education, Vol. 8, No 3, 2021 restrained parental control, which in turn impacts on their capacity to make decisions concerning children's attitudes about their life prospects. Hence, this serves as a way of avoiding contention, which negatively impacts on the parents' possibilities of monitoring the children.
In some households children were able to restrict the authority of their parents, as such parents managed to maintain modesty in their parent-child relationship. Ahi'smother who is single,ill and cannot provide household income explains how her daughter's income earning role contributes to her controlling basic household decisions. She states: "Now Ahi wants to decide when we eat and do things even when she is not home. If she arrives to see us eating, she says: [you are all eating here, you must wait for me…I will stop working]. So I now wait for her to come home in the evening before having our meal, [because she has] warned me".
Ahi: "I feel I am working so much, so my family must wait for me before evening food. If not I won't work" This situation illustrates the children's control strategies to override parental authority by using their working status as a threat to ensure compliance with their demands. Ahi's mother acquiesce with Ahi's decision to wait for her return before the family eats dinner, shows an attempt to maintain her relationship with the childby pacifying her and following her demands. Kuczynski (2003) confirms that an important source of children's power derives from the resources that they can generate as members in symbiotic relationship, which could manifest itself in ordering parents. This shows the extent to which the underlying change in power dynamics impacts negatively on parental decision-making ability.
The process of contesting children's decisions when their power is constantly being undermined because of the income they generate is complex. Eseosa who assists in selling the items his mother procures is reported to have changed in behaviour as reflected in the narratives below: Eseosa's Mother: "He gives me trouble now, since he started helping with work, he decides when to come home sometimes. He even decides when he wants to go to hawk and when not. As young as he is, I cannot control him anymore, just because I ask him to work".
Eseosa: "I work when I want and I also stay out playing, until it is time to come home, because I am trying". This situation demonstrates children's eagerness to take control as they recognise the power they acquire from bringing in an income. The child's uncontrolled attitude can be regarded as inappropriate, since it could lead to more serious, disruptive behaviour, if left to continue. This is indicative of the struggle parents' encounter in challenging the influence of their children yet simultaneously having to remain acquiescent within the parent-child dynamic (Ugudulunwa, Anakwe & Mustapha, 2004). If children are constantly engaged in work, they are likely to rebel with a desire to subdue parents. The narratives above clearly illustrate how children can use the money earned to assert their authority in the household, since children's threats of not continuing to work has bearing on the ability of parents to maintain their role as parents. Another strategy utilized by children to restrict parental authority and prevent their control included acts of disobedience such as ignoring, or quarrelling with parents, as discussed below.

Dynamics of Insubordination
One of the salient ways in which children's engagement in work impacts on the childparent relationship is the notion of children's disobedience towards their parents and undermining the traditional parental role. Parental guidance generally serves to curb children's risky behaviours and attitudes; however, working children seemed to develop self-confidence through autonomous actions as a result of their income earning role (Blum, 2011). While the children demonstrated ingenuity in the face of adversity, parents described how their instructions

RECENT ISSUES IN SOCIAL WORK
Social Work and Education, Vol. 8, No 3, 2021 were disregarded, which seemed to obstruct the parent-child relationship. Although "parents may accept the income generated by the children, they express concern at the level of disobedience exhibited by their children" (Ayodele & Olubayo-Fatiregun, 2014, p. 23). This is demonstrated in the case of Ben, who assumed the responsibility of working when his father's pension allowance was insufficient to provide for his schooling or other family requirements: Ben's Father: "Ben comes home late sometimes, since he started working, if he is not returning at 8.00pm, then its 8.30pm, but I understand some days are not very busy for him. I have advised my son not to stay that long to avoid hanging out with bad boys but he would not… this bothers me".
My father always wants me to be home when I am not working, I don't like this, I like having some time with my friends after work". Ben's father feels undermined by his son's disregard for his instructions which are important for his safety, since he senses that his son may be keeping bad company and may be at greater risk, the later he stays out.These situations illustrate the manner in which child labour influences power changes, since children contest the parental position in the family by refusing to conform. On the other hand, it may be Ben's way of getting leisure time in his busy schedule. Research by Moses (2008) and Omorogiuwa (2016) confirm that the socio-economic conditions of families, which influence the notion of children's roles, are often displayed in the power dynamics between children and adults. In this instance, the presence of a power struggle is observed in the parental change of role, which becomes evident from children's disobedience.
For Qury's whose mother is a single parent, and lost her job, the extent of the defiance was very extreme as described in the excerptsbelow.
Qury's mother:"The money from the boy's work is helpful to the family. The only challenge is that Qury is now very stubborn, very difficult these days, if I say one he says two. He has no single fear for me anymore. He is now the 'oga' [master] in the house since he started working. I find it difficult to control him".
Qury: "Even with my work to help us, my mother argues with me all the time, later she says I am stubborn".
These illustrate how some children wield control and expect parents to yield entirely to their wishes, by ignoring and challenging them, which is indicative of the way in which a change in role influences power play as well as parental dignity. Mitik and Decaluwé (2009) support that the substitution of parental role by children may reduce their power, as children believe they have the capacity to resist parental influence because of th eir income earning. Parental power being limited in this way significantly inhibits parents' ability to maintain parentalrelationship with their children and prevents them from guiding appropriately. This shift in role seems to reduce parental power while increasing the power of children, which is problematic and not in their best interests of both the child and parent. Some parents experience extreme frustration and distress at the new-found authority of their children since it not only impinge on their rights as parents, but essentially mocks them.The narratives below illustrate how children perceived their mothers as objects to be subdued, reacting with wilfulness that openly defies their instructions.
Ota's mother: "He talks back at me these days; he is not as polite as he used to be. Money has changed him, he flouts me, he stands against every advice of mine, if I say don't do this, he will do…. We quarrel most of the time, he doesn't mind, but I am worried". Ota: "My mother wants to be telling me what to do all the time, but I will say no, let me do want I want, after all I am trying for us, and then she will say I am not obeying her".
These situations illustrate how the influence of parents becomes limited, which engenders disrespect for parents and countering their advice. Similarly, the following quotes show how parents and children feel due to the role change:

RECENT ISSUES IN SOCIAL WORK
Social Work and Education, Vol. 8, No 3, 2021 Marosa's mother: "I am not comfortable with her behaviour anymore, she doesn't listen to me. So many times she will refuse to greet me when back from school, when I ask, she will say she is trying; I should be greeting her instead... I don't know whether she is now another madam here or I am still the one".
Marosa: "I work all the time, if I am not appreciated, I will help myself". Dora's mother: "Sometimes my daughter pays no attention to me when I am talking to her. It worries me, I don't like this". Dora: "I like to be myself…. but my mother keeps saying I am ignoring her". The narratives above reveal a state of insubordination of children to their mothers and a means of displaying their financial influence, which is likely to reduce the power of parents in the family context. These acts of non-compliance support the ILO (2006) report that although children's income is considered crucial to family survival, they utilise various measures of disobedience to oppose parents' authority within the limits of their control. Hence, the notion of being disobeyed by children intensely impacted on some parents' sense of dignity and compromised their rights as parents, as some found solace in the hope that someday they would find a job.
Children's rebellious behaviour is also seen in their non-participation in household tasks. For example, Ruth sells pap daily and earns income for the household, but her grandmother explains that her ability to determine Ruth's responsibilities at home is limited.
Ruth's grandmother:"I cannot say I don't like it as she is working,…But now this child does not want to help with the housework anymore. She has made up her mind not to work at home, 'I earn the money we use, and I am tired now'… she says. So, she leaves the house chores for her younger sister and me".
Ruth: "After work, grandma still wants me to work, even when I am tired, so I usually refuse, because my sister can do that".
It emerges from this narrative that Ruth is challenging the status quo as a result of the change in their financial condition. Perhaps it is unrealistic for her grandmother to expect her to perform household chores, as her sister is capable of managing housework. Given the number of hours worked by children, it is to be expected that they would be reluctant to work at home and the stress and pressure could result in resentment and rebellion. This situation confirms the contention of Blum (2011, p. 63), who confirms that parents' account of "children's economic contributions to families' sustenance sheds light on the power dynamics entangled in family relationships founded on work".This reversal of role, which is indicative of a power change, contributes to conflict and distress in families already facing enormous hardship. The manner, in which the dynamics of power is intensified in the context where aggression is utilized as a strategy, is discussed below.

Power as a Context for Aggression
Some children displayed authority over parents not just through rebellion and disobedience, but in some cases through aggressive behaviour. Cavell and Strand (2003, p. 41) suggest that "aggression is linked to children's need for control and influence in parent-child relationships". Some children used anger to deflect the authority of parents as well as hostility, humiliation and a tendency towards violence to pressurise parents to stop chastising them. The narratives below are indicative of the environment of fear and intimidation created by children as income earners, which influenced the parents' inability to control them.
Greg's Mother: "He seems hostile since he works. Anytime he meets me and the other children at home watching TV, he will be angry. He will shout: 'You are all enjoying yourselves at home….[he even points at me] you make me suffer'…. little boy pointing fingers at his mother because of money".

RECENT ISSUES IN SOCIAL WORK
Social Work and Education, Vol. 8, No 3, 2021 Greg:"What I don't like is that I will be working, everybody will be at home enjoying, watching TV, it pains me and I will not be happy". These narratives demonstratehow the child understandably resents having to work and feeling that the rest of the family is not putting in the required effort but benefitting from his labour. The child's response is to some extent legitimate, given his struggle to assist his household, however, the level of intimidation and aggressive behaviour approximate violence, which concerns parents. Patterson (as cited in Cavell and Strand (2003, p. 41) affirm that "most children who work develop aggressive tendencies in order to wield considerable power in their families".If parents are constrained and siblings repressed to the extent illustrated in these narratives, the ability of parents to exert authority seems compromised. Chally's behaviour is similarly aggressive, as related: Chally's Mother: "He beats his younger ones these days, they do not even look into his eyes twice….as small as he is. They don't respect me; no one respects me in this house. He keeps saying... I can't stop him from fighting them…that will mean more trouble. He is feared now our…. big brother in the house".
Chally: "When I return from work my younger ones do not greet me, they must respect me or I beat them".
These narratives illustrate how instilling fear in siblings results in parents being submissive to the children and afraid of repercussion if they challenge them. The issue of being greeted first seems to be an important indicator of children feeling respected and powerful given their economic role in their family. When this doesn't happen it is likely that children become frustrated, angry and in some cases resort to violence to imbibe respect. Marais and Meier (2010, p. 51) concurs that the "possible reasons of disrespect can lead to children fighting and bullying other children, which allows them to experience a sense of control and authority". However, if children continue to relate in this manner, they have the propensity of developing more grievous antisocial behaviours.
Another tactic used to suppress parental control is resentment. Titi also works to assist her single mother who is sick and cannot work; however, she has become extremely aggressive and displayed resentment, which affects her mother emotionally.
Titi's Mother: "She is a source of help to me. She complains of not getting an assistant, but I cannot afford one. She is now so harsh; too much as if wanting to fight me, shouting and talking in high tones and sometimes refuses to attend to customers….. I have pleaded with her but she doesn't want to understand".
Titi: "I would like it if my mother employed somebody to assist with the work at the shop. I will then have enough time for myself and my school work, not having assistance makes me angry always".
The use of aggression as exhibited by Titi is particularly evident in situations where children appear to feel powerless by the circumstances that force them to work. Titi's appeal for assistance in the store seems to be a call for help, since it appears she is unable to cope. While the anger and irritation is perhaps expressed incorrectly, it may be the only way Titi is able to convey her frustration and helplessness in the situation.Whilst this kind of behaviour is not acceptable it is in a context with little options. Cavell and Strand (2003) support that children who exercise powers through hostility are capable of maintaining a sense of discomfort and make parents yield to pressure. The manners in which children wield restrain on parental power and authority as a result of their working role fundamentally challenges the dignity, rights and authority of parents.
The behaviour and attitudes of some of the children in this study suggest that to some extent they apply aggressive measures to wield power over their parents. Although Lilly works to assist her mother, her behaviour towards her mother is insensitive. The excerpts below reveal:

RECENT ISSUES IN SOCIAL WORK
Social Work and Education, Vol. 8, No 3, 2021 Lilly's Mother: "She gets so annoyed sometimes, when she is not satisfied with her food…or when there is no food at home. She will say 'in spite of my work, you don't give me food', she will not talk to me, until she is given what she wants".
Lilly: "Sometimes I feel I am not loved and then I will be irritated". These demonstrate how children's perceived sense of a lack of appreciation for their work may result in them using inappropriate methods to coerce parents to satisfy their wishes. It also implies that the need for power and control makes some children get fury as a way of challenging their parents' authority. The acts of aggression and conflict, which the children in this study displayedaligns with what Lundberg et al. (2009) describe as child's resistance and hostility. Children's resistive behaviours engendered a sense of restraint in parents and fear to deal with the situation, since they recognize the children's power, and if they stop working the consequences for the family are dire.
Notwithstanding the financial benefits from child labour, the belligerents' attitudes of children and the negative parent-child relationships appear unacceptable and injurious to the children and family well-being. This also indicates thechallengingcircumstancesparents experience between their reversed income earning role and children's uncontrollable and combative behaviours. Obviously, these situations illustrate the evilshouseholds suffer when children are engaged in income earning tasks within the Nigerian context (Ugudulunwa, et al., 2004). The financial contribution of children to their householdsoften increases their power as they utilised different tactics such as insubordination, hostility and other aggressive actions,to limit parental influence, resulting in humiliation and the disrespect of parents. As such dealings with parents hinder children from learning appropriate behaviours needed for later life prospects, and it could impede the growth of positive parent-child relationships.

Conclusion and recommendations
The accounts of parents complimented by that of their children in this study illustrate how their role reversal has affected their relationships with their children and how they could not assert their authority. The notion of parental authority and children's influence being unequal or unbalanced is fundamental in parent-child relationships. Parental authority appeared to be hindered as they were afraid of their children's behaviour as well as the possible consequences of their refusal to work and the anxiety of further financial strife. Consequently, conclusion was reached; that parent-child relationship is impeded due to children's disobedience, hostility and aggressive behaviours, because they become the income earners. Although, there could be instances in which child labourers comply with authority of their parents. The situations in this study indicate how parents' capacity to curb children's behaviour and maintain their roles as parents, are constrained due to children's financial contributory role.
The inferences arising from this study indicate that child labour is not a viable option in enhancing family finance, as it threatens children's moral development and parent-child relationships. Therefore, recommendations are made that the indication of the phenomenon should be reported by community members as well as other service providers to social workers to enable assistance provision. A multi-sector collaboration between service agencies, related professionals and community members is needed in view of the multi-faceted challenges of child labour on families. There is the need for information sharing, in order to ensure that various parties work together to strengthen children and parents support systems as well as addressing the phenomenon of child labour effectively. This is because the process of intervention within the interpersonal dimension of child labour and its influences on children and their parents, include awareness-raising amongst other assistances.
Given that the phenomenon of child labour is complex and engagement with clients (children and parents or guardians) is also intricate, social work practitioners should intervene with children and their parents with sensitivity as they require long-lasting intervention.Focus

RECENT ISSUES IN SOCIAL WORK
Social Work and Education, Vol. 8, No 3, 2021 should be to build and strengthen the financial capacity of parents to enable them to care for and support their children. Importantly is the need to utilize social work psychosocial support to address the power dynamics when children are the key breadwinners in the family and encourage children to be respectful to their parents, guardians and adults, irrespective of the circumstances. Hence, intervention initiatives should recognise prioritizing change assistance in order to protect children as well as maintaining parent-child relationships in dealing with the issue of child labour.